The Roman Identity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Roman Identity - Essay Example Traditions were supported with the mos maiorum. According to tradition the father was the one who made decisions in the family. These decisions were as basic as acknowledging parentage when a baby was born to deciding who his children would marry. In a larger sense Roman society had identity defined by where they were (Alban vs. Roman, etc.), city names and traditions specific to cities. In Livy's book one, the first paragraph shows how the Romans took their beliefs seriously especially when it came to hospitality: "To begin with, it is generally admitted that after the capture of Troy, whilst the rest of the Trojans were massacred, against two of them--Aeneas and Antenor--the Achivi refused to exercise the rights of war, partly owing to old ties of hospitality". (Livy, 1.1) Rules, written or unwritten were important to the Romans. Later in the first chapter Livy records how the issue of hospitality reared its head again when Romulus invited all the nearest peoples to a celebration. When the people were in his city they were invited into Roman homes throughout the city. A signal was given and Roman youths carried away the unmarried women. Of course this made a lot of people upset and Romulus was accused of violating the rules of hospitality: maidens retired, complaining of the violated compact of hospitality, and invoking the god, to whose solemn festival and games they had come, having been deceived by the pretence of religion and good faith." (Livy 1.) The compact of hospitality shows commitment of the Romans and their guests to certain rules, principals, or values. By ordering the women carried off Romulus was, in fact, violating the rights of the fathers to decide who their daughters would marry (called patria potestas). This was Romulus' attempt to solve the problem of too few women in his community. It was paterfamilias that gave the father this right to rule over his family. Roman society outside the home was an extension of paterfamilias. Outside the family the Romans belonged to a patron who took care of his charges during good and bad times. This patron in turn received the support of his charges. The selection is quoted to show how committed the people of that time were to their beliefs, religion, and good faith and how their beliefs/laws were violated. The Rome that Livy writes about contains numerous examples of how important family values were. Rome's growth was physical and moral. The Romans were caught up in the beauty of their land and the love for their families: "Before they had become united in spirit by commitment to wives and children and by love for the soil the nation not yet grown up, would have been torn apart by dissension" (Livy, 2.1) The challenge to maintain the values and virtues of Roman society was met with temptations and excesses. Many Romans fell to these temptations: "There has never been any state grander, purer, or richer in good examples, or one into which greed and luxury gained entrance so late" (Preface) "Among the Roman youth there were several of high birth who had lived under the monarchy a more irresponsible and pleasure seeking lifemissed the license that had been theirs and with everyone now enjoying equal rights they began to complain

Profit Maximization An Actual or Theoretical Objective Term Paper

Profit Maximization An Actual or Theoretical Objective - Term Paper Example If the results are observed to have positive impacts on profits, only then that decision is taken into consideration for further implementation. There are number of reasons due to which the model of profit maximization receives attention.it is encouraged because of undeniable and sustainable advantages which it offers to the business. Some of them include: Measurement Standard For identifying the performance of a firm, the first question is asked whether the firm is yielding profits or incurring losses. The higher the profits are earned, the better the performance of the firm. This phenomenon is not merely theoretical but its implications can be seen in the real world also. For instance, before investing into any specific firm, the first thing that investors examine is whether the firm is earning profits or not. Investors never invest in any loss making firm and always make a portfolio of firms that are generating higher profits (Kaneda and Matsui, 2003). Survival of Firm Profits are directly linked with firm’s survival. A company that is incurring losses is more likely to get bankrupt irrespective of its history or past performance (Dwivedi, 2012). The example of Kodak can be quoted here. Despite of its experience of 131 years, the company filed for bankruptcy in January 2012. The company could not hold its position and began to incur losses due to which it could not survive and ultimately, collapsed. Economic and Social Welfare Indirectly, the objective of profit maximization caters to economic and social welfare. In businesses, profits account for allocation of resources and efficient utilization. Making payments and allocating resources such as land, labor, capital, assist in taking care of economic and social welfare (Dwivedi, 2012). A lot of thought has been given to the question of profit maximization by economists. Some large and complex institutions where people of different background work together, the purpose is to maximize profits. In actual situation, profit maximization is so common that in some cases, it leads to severe ethical concerns. In the lust of earning higher profits, companies tend to shun ethical boundaries and violate ethics for earning greater returns. Some popular brand such as GAP, Nike, Levi’s, Converse, have proved to be guilty for ethical violation. Their customer base and headquarters are located in United States whereas their production processes are carried out in Asia; therefore they have been criticized for exploitation of workers. They fail to amend the malpractices at production sites of which they are aware but do not take action to correct them. Profit maximization is the fundamental assumption of economic theory. Although it is undeniably of greatest important however, by itself, it is not an ample criterion for effective business management. In practice, there are number of motivations and considerations that influence the desire for maximum economic efficiency and greatest profit as well as the accompanying assumptions that trigger the firm’s economic theory. Criticism to Profit Maximization Despite of such importance in theoretical and actual context, profit maximization is still criticized due to number of reasons. It is considered as undesirable on account of the reasons mentioned below. It overlooks the means involved to earn

Mutation Testing by Using Formal Method

Mutation Testing by Using Formal Method Jaspreet Singh Abstract Mutation testing was introduced in 1970’s in the field of software testing as a process of testing the test suites by intentionally seeding errors i.e. mutation operators, into the original program’s source code. Its main purpose is to verify the functionality of the test cases which are executed with the aim of catching the variations between the program and the mutants. It’s extremely essential to improve the efficiency and adequacy of test cases. Hence, the goal is to make the mutant program fail. This paper depends upon the literature survey of mutation testing by using formal methods. Keywords- Mutant, Code, Program, Test cases, Kill, PIMS. I INTRODUCTION Since 1970’s, this technique is used by developers for validating the test cases as well as the test data generation. It’s a well know process to computer scientists for years. But due to heaviness of the method, it demanded huge computational power which reduced its usability. But the advancements in software engineering and the era of increased computational power, has laid it continue to serve as the most powerful method of verifying the functionality and performance of test suites. The objective is to improve the aptness and efficiency of test cases where the programmer will intentionally alter the original program’s source code by injecting a faulty piece of code known as a mutant, into it. The resultant code is referred to as mutated code. The mutation procedure will create many versions of the original program. Each version is known as a mutant. The execution of a mutant will verify the proficiency of the test case. If the output of the original program wi ll vary with that of the mutant one causing each faulty version to fail [1]. The resultant mutant is killed and the test case is saved considering it an adequate one. More the number of mutants killed by a test case, the better is the competency of the test case. Mutation testing is proficient in testing programs at the unit level, integration level and the specification level. It has been applied to many programming languages like C, C++, etc. and is a part of white box test technique [2]. II LITERATURE SURVEY Initial concepts of mutation were introduced by Richard Lipton in a class term paper titled â€Å"Fault Diagnosis of Computer Programs†. The first referred publications were presented in the late 1970’s ; the DeMillo, Lipton. PIMS was one of the first mutation testing tools [3]. It originated the basic procedure typically used in mutation analysis of creating mutants, obtaining test cases from the users, and then executing the them on the mutants to conclude how many mutants were killed. The most widely used tool among researchers was the Mothra mutation toolset [3], which provided an integrated set of tools, each of which performed an individual, separate task to support mutation analysis and testing. Several variants of Mothra were created in the early 1990s, including one that implemented weak mutation [4], and several distributed versions. A compiler-integrated mutation tool for C was also developed [5], and tool that was based on program schemata [6]. However, thes e tools were primarily used by the researchers who developed them and the only widely used system besides the original version of Mothra has been the Proteum mutation system for C [7]. A Formal Methods Formal methods are techniques based on mathematics and formal logic. It supports automated consistency checking and testing specifications. It helps finding defects when applied to good quality software. Such methods allow large number of classes of test cases having finite proof with support least dependence on subjective reasoning [8]. B The benefits of using Formal Methods include: Product-focused measure of correctness: The use is used for the of Formal correctness of a system. Early detection of defects: Formal Methods can be applied to earlier detection and elimination of design defects and associated late cycle rework. Guarantees of correctness: Unlike testing, formal analysis tools go through all possible execution paths through the system. If there is any way to reach a fault condition, a tool will find it. In a multi-threaded system where concurrency is an issue, formal analysis can explore all possible interleavings and event orderings[13]. Fig-1 Formal Methods such as model checking examine more system behaviors for safety violations than testing alone III NOTIONS OF FORMAL PROOF: A Mathematical proof: A formal proof is a complete and convincing mathematical argument, presenting the full logical justification for each proof of set of theorems B Machine-checked proof: A formal proof is evidence accepted by a proof checker showing that a conjecture is a valid consequence of given axioms. C Hilbert proof: A formal proof in a theory is a sequence of formulas, each of which is either an axiom of or a direct consequence of preceding formulas in the sequence by virtue of a rule of inference associated with the underlying formal system[14]. IV TYPES OF MUTANTS We define the following classification of mutants as follows: A Killed Mutant; which was killed by a test case which was specifically written to kill it. The concept behind mutation testing is that modifying the source code of a given unit (or mutating it) should cause the test that operates on that unit to fail. Example : Method and Corresponding Unit Test //original code under test public class Example { public boolean is LessThanThree(int number) { return (number Example : Mutated Method public class Example { public boolean isLessThanThree(int number) { return (number > 3); } } Notice that with this mutation, the method testLessThanThree would fail because the mutated method now returns the boolean number > 3, which in this case would be false and the assert statement is checking to see that the desired result is true. The method TestLessThanThreeFail would not fail, however, because 3 is not greater than 3 and the returned boolean would be false, which is what the assert statement is checking for. Because testLessThanThree failed, this mutant is said to be killed; the mutation caused the test to fail, which means the test is adequately catching this kind of mistake[12]. Dead on Arrival (DOA)- Mutant that was killed by the initial test suite found in the test bed. Ignored Mutant which a study participant encountered but did not kill. Living-Mutant which could not be killed due to time constraints (whether or not the mutant was encountered). Crossfire- Mutant that was killed by a test case intended to kill a different mutant. Stubborn.-Mutant that cannot be killed by a test case due to logical equivalence or language constructs. B Ordering Mutants: Let P be an implemented program and P’ be a first order mutant that differs from P at location l. A test case, t1 can distinguish P form P’ provided the following necessary and sufficient conditions hold on executing P and P’ with starting state t1: This has 3 properties: The execution must reach location l ( ); The evaluation of expressions at location l in P and P’ must result in different values at least once ( ) ; The final states on termination of execution of P and P’ must be different ( ). Properties (a) and (b) follow by observing that the location must be reached and in the case of a c-location the two executions must result in two different states if they are to be distinguished. 1) Process of Mutation Testing NO YES YES NO Fig. 2 Working of Mutation process The process of mutation analysis is shown in fig. 2. Steps are as follows: The program is being fed as an input and is executed. The resultant is checked . If the resultant indicates successful completion of the program, then terminate. If not, then create mutants (mutated code). A mutant, as previously mentioned is an intentionally altered program by the programmer. It is fed by some errors termed as mutation operators. Test cases are created to the system to be executed on the program. Execute the test cases against the mutant. If the output of the mutant is correct, then execute the test case on each version of the mutant. If not, then again the output of the original program is checked. Compare the output of the original source code with that of each version’s. A decision is made after determining the output of the original code with that of the mutated one. If the output differs, then the test is considered to be an adequate one and is executed on each of the mutants of the program The mutant that is detected is marked as dead/killed. Whereas, output being same indicates inadequacy of the test case and the program. 2) Mutation Operators- Taxonomy of mutation operators: 3)Statement Mutations: The mutant is produced by replacing the keywords in the statement, like While to do while While to For Example for Switch statement: Program Switch Statements case 0: i++; case 1: i = 4; Mutant: case 1: i++; case 0: i = 4; Operator Mutations The mutant is produced by changing the operator in the original source code. For ex: a=1, b=0 If (a b) { C=1; } else { C=0;} The condition mutation operator would replace with the mutation operator || and gives us the following mutant: If(a||b) { C=1; } else { C=0;} Variable Mutations Replace each variable with another variable declared in the same scope (variable types should be the same). Constant Mutations In constant mutations, the mutant tends to fail as there is no mutation operator to be replaced Ex: If (1) { printf (â€Å"How are you?†); } Else {printf(â€Å"I am fine.†);} In this case, mutation testing fails. [2] Example Original piece of a code: c=a+b; where a=3and b=2 Putting the values for a and b, it will result in 3+2=5 Now, possible mutants are c=a-b; , c=a/b; and c=a*b; Such mutations are mostly easier for a test suite to recognize if (a == b) { //do something } will be mutated to if (a != b) { // do something } Here, == is replaced by !=. V PROS AND CONS Mutation procedure is widely acceptable as an essential way to determine the fault-detecting effectiveness of the test sets. Now software developers and testers everywhere can enjoy the most powerful error- detection capabilities with the speed and ease of use of an automatic running debugging tool [9]. But, at the same time it pertains some disadvantages also, which are as follows: A PRO’S: Providing the testers with a target- One of the major advantages of mutation testing is that it provides the tester with a target. The tester has to generate a test data with the aim of killing all the generated mutants. Therefore, we can generate an adequate test data set that is capable enough to detect errors in the program.[10] Bringing more confidence in customers and testers- The customer also benefits from this technique , as he receives a more reliable and bug free software. This will increase confidence in them which will profit your company where it matters most. Mutation Testing originated as a means of creating more effective test suites by which the tester can be more confident that his program is adequately tested. It’s a powerful fault-based testing approach for competent programmers. B CON’S: Computationally expensive due to lack of automated tool..Mutation Testing is complicated and time-consuming to perform without an automated tool. Often, there are massive number of mutants that are generated for a original program as number of mutants is directly proportional to the mutation operators applied. Hence it is computationally expensive to run. The test cases on each and every mutant. It is also expensive to compile and execute every mutant [9][10]. An example of this is shown in Table No. 2 given below. Table 2 Increase In Computational Cost Such mutants only contribute in increasing the computational cost as the efforts needed to check if mutants are equivalent or not, can be very high even for small programs against the test cases. [2] Equivalent Mutants, one of the biggest problems- Syntactically different from the original program. But, semantically the same. Consider the example given in Table No. 3 given below: The equivalent mutant is generated by changing the operator Table 3 Equivalent Mutants Manual equivalent mutant detection is quite tedious- The other barrier to more widespread use of mutation testing is the amount of manual labor involved in using this technique. Hence, developing mutation adequate test cases can be very labor-intensive.[2] VI CONCLUSION This paper provides a detailed review of mutation testing .It covers the objective, Analysis of previous mutation systems, Formal Methods, working of mutation testing and efficient test case generation, Taxonomy of mutation operators and its Pro’s and Con’s . Mutation testing has given a great contribution in the field of software testing and provided the testers with a matured and affordable technique in detecting best test suites. Future Scope Our future scope is to develop a more advanced mutation testing approach that minimizes the issue of computational cost up to a certain level with the aim of killing all the possible mutants and thereby generating good test cases. REFERENCES [1] Yue Jia ans Mark Harman. An Analysis and Survey of the Development of Mutation Testing. IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, King’s College London, Centre for Research on Evolution Search and Testing (CREST), Strand, London, WC2R 2LS, UK, 2010 [2] Hiralal Agrawal , Richard A. DeMillo, Bob Hathaway, William Hsu, Wynne Hsu, E.W. Krauser, R.J. Martin and Aditya P. Mathur, â€Å"Design Of Mutant Operators For The C Programming Language†, Software Engineering Research Centre, Department of Computer Sciences, Purdue University, W. Lafayette, IN 47907, Revision 1.02, March 20, 1989. [3] D. M. S. Andre. Pilot mutation system (pims) user’s manual. Technical report GIT-ICS-79/04, Georgia Institute of Technology, April 1979 [4] A.J Offutt and S.D.Lee. An empirical evaluation of weak mutation. IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering , 20(5): 337-344, May 1994. [5] R.A. DeMillo, E.W.Krauser, and A.P. Mathur. Compiler-integrated program mutation. In Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Computer Software and Applications Conference (COMPSAC’ 92), Tokya, Japan, September 1991. Kogakuim University, IEEE Computer Society Press. [6] R. Untch, A.J. Offutt, and M.J. Harrold. Mutation analysis using program schemata. In Proceedings of the 1993 International symposium on Software Testing, and Analysis, pages 139-148, Cambridge MA, June 1993. [7] M.E. Delamaro and J.C. Maldonado. Proteum – A tool for the assessment of test adequacy for C programs. Proceedings of the Conference on Performability in Computing Systems, pages 75-95. July 1996. [8] A. Jefforson Offutt, A practical system for mutation testing: Help for the common programmer, ISSE Department, George Mason University,Fairfax, VA 22030, 1994. [9] S. Madiraju ,S. Ramakrishnan and A.J.Hurst, â€Å"Towards Automated Mutation Testing†, March 2004. [10] A. Jefferson Offutt and Roland H.Untch, Mutation : Uniting the orthogonal, A. Jeerson Offutt ISE Department, George Mason University Fairfax, VA USA, Roland H.Untch, Department of Computer Science Middle Tennessee State University Murfreesboro, 2000. [11] David L. Dill, â€Å"Formal Methods Specification and Verification Guidebook for software and computer systems† Vol. 1, Computer Science Department, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, July 1995. [12] Ben Smith and Laurie Williams, â€Å"Software Engineering†, Department of computer science North Carolina State University. [13] Murali Rangarajan, â€Å"Formal Methods†,Honeywell Laboratories 3660 Technology Drive Minneapolis, MN 55418. [14] James G. Williams and Marshall D. Abrams, â€Å"Formal Methods And Models†.

Aspects & Impacts of Porous Pavements Essay -- Pavement Driving Surfac

Short Memo: Aspects & Impacts of Porous Pavements The purpose of this short memo is to discuss aspects of use, applicability, and environmental impacts of porous pavements as gleaned from practical findings and pertinent examples. A porous pavement is one with high enough porosity and permeability to allow rain and snowmelt to pass through it, thereby reducing the runoff from a site and surrounding areas. In intensely built up areas, pavements account for more than half of all the land, and for about two-thirds of total built cover (Ferguson, 2005, 2-3). Parking lots, in particular, account for the majority of paved areas. Pervious paving materials have the capability of providing a dual purpose in parking and other areas with low to moderate traffic; they serve both as a parking/traffic area and to manage stormwater. Components & Function There are several types of porous pavements, namely porous asphalt, porous concrete, and numerous modular paver systems. Both a construction material and a design technique, systems may be used individually or enhanced through a combination of types. Porous asphalt consists of an open-graded coarse aggregate bonded together by asphalt cement. The mixture contains fewer fines than traditional asphalt and sufficient void space between aggregate particles allows water to drain through quickly. Porous concrete also consists of an open-graded coarse aggregate, formulated with Portland cement and water. Modular porous pavers are structural units, such as concrete blocks or reinforced plastic mats, with void areas that are filled with pervious materials, to achieve a load-bearing permeable surface. The pervious fill materials include sand, grass turf, and gravel. Each of these surfaces is typical... ...rent purposes. Residential streets and interstate shoulders have been constructed of porous systems, and more extensive weight-bearing roads are functioning in Europe. More research and site study of porous paving techniques and specifications are needed to continue to increase knowledge and implementation of these systems, and to further their capacity for use. Works Cited Adams, Michele (May/June 2003). â€Å"Porous Asphalt Pavement With Recharge Beds,† Stormwater Magazine. www.forester.net/sw_0305_porous.html Ferguson, Bruce (2005). Porous Pavements. FL: CRC Press. Georgia Stormwater Management Manual (2001). â€Å"Porous Concrete.† Vol. 2, 3.3-33 - 3.3-40. Georgia Stormwater Management Manual (2001). â€Å"Modular Porous Paver Systems.† Vol. 2, 3.3-41 – 3.3-46. U.S. EPA (September 1999). Stormwater Technology Factsheet: Porous Pavement. Washington, DC: EPA 832-F-99-023.

Candy’s Dog being shot dead Essay

I believe that Candy’s dog being shot dead is one of the most important parts of the novel and should definitely be included in a film version. In this scene Carlson starts moaning about how much Candy’s old dog smells. He then suggests that Candy should shoot him and even offers to do it himself. But it is the things that Carlson says in order to justify himself that are important for the readers because it helps us to see why George decided to do what he did at the end of the book. For example, when Carlson says, â€Å"This old dog, just suffers hisself all the time,† and â€Å"you aint been kind to him, keeping him alive,† when he is trying to convince Candy that it is almost cruel to make him live life any longer. Carlson also describes how Candy could kill the dog in a quick, humane way. He says, â€Å"shoot him right in the back of the head – he’d never know what hit him. † This is particularly important because George kills Lennie in this exact way. It is where he got the idea that ‘mercy killing’ was even an option. Slim is then asked to give his opinion and he agrees with Carlson saying, â€Å"That dog aint no good to himself. † As Slim is the only person on the ranch to have natural authority, and his â€Å"opinions were law. † Candy reluctantly agrees to let Carlson shoot his dog. If this scene was left out we would not understand why George would even consider killing Lennie and we would get the impression that George carried it out in cold blood and did not care. The scene should be set in a dimly lit, dark setting. The darkness would help to emphasize the end of life. Carlson should be talking abruptly and quickly showing that he is not thinking about Candy’s feelings and is unaware of how much the dog means to Candy. Slim in contrast should be taking is time over his speech, showing that he wants this to be as painless as it can be for Candy. He shows that he cares when he instructs Carlson to â€Å"take a shovel,† so that he can bury the dog so Candy wont have to see his dog in the morning. The Fight Scene Another important scene is the fight between Curley and Lennie. In this scene Curley has just accused Slim of being with his wife and in return Slim shouts back at him. Carlson and Candy take advantage of the situation by insulting Curley. Curley feels degraded and wants to take it out on someone. Lennie is there and is the perfect person because Curley being small always feels as though he has something to prove and a ‘real chip on his shoulder’ towards bigger guys. Lennie is smiling at the thought of the dream of living ‘off the fat of the land’ and Curley uses it as an opportunity to pick a fight. He says, â€Å"What the hell you laughin’ at? † and punches Lennies face making his nose bleed. Lennie is described as being ‘too frightened to defend himself. † But under the instruction of George, Lennie grabs Curley’s hand and cannot let go, even with George slapping him round the face telling him to. Lennie feels guilty afterwards and he shows it when he says, â€Å"I didn’t wanta hurt him,† and â€Å"I didn’t mean no harm. † It is this scene that enables us to see the extent of Lennie’s strength and how dangerous it can be when combined with such a simple mind. The scene gives us a clue towards the main plot. Without this scene we would not realise what a true accident Curley’s wife’s death was and the reader would not feel as sorry for Lennie as they do. It would make the ending much less effective.

Women in Psychology Mary Calkins

What does it take to be number one? As we know everyone loves a winner. Most people if they were asked who the fastest man in the world was? They would correctly answer with the name Usain Bolt. Nobody remembers number two right? However, let us imagine Mr. Bolt being told that he could compete in track and field but he could not officially win any medal because he was Jamaican. Sounds far-fetched today and against our values and everything we stand for in the 21st century? Well in the 1800s, things were very different especially for women and Mary Calkins was no exception. Mary Calkins not only made countless contributions to the field of psychology, her perseverance changed many perceptions resulting in her indirectly becoming a champion for women’s rights and equality. In this assignment, we will examine Mrs. Calkin’s background, theoretical perspectives and the integral role she played in the field of psychology. Mary Calkins, the oldest of five children was born to Wolcott and Charlotte Calkins on March 30, 1863, in Hartford, Connecticut. Her parents placed a great emphasis on education so in addition to elementary school, she took private lessons so she could learn German. After graduating high school Mary enrolled in Smith College in 1882, but took a hiatus her junior year in 1884, due to the untimely death of her sister and her mother being gravely ill. Mary did not make waste of this time. While at home she decided to learn Greek which was pivotal to her journey in the field of psychology. After Mary finally earned her degrees in Classics and Philosophy, she took a trip to Europe with family and had already decided when she returned that she would be a teacher and as well as tutor students in the Greek Language. However, her plans changed when she was offered the opportunity to teach Greek, at Wellesley, College, one of the few higher learning educational institutions for women in the country. At Wellesley, she taught not only Greek, but philosophy and psychology as well. This ultimately resulting in the university creating a new position for her in the experimental psychology department, although she had no credentialed training in psychology. This was crucial because many schools back then did not even admit women as students much less allow them to hold such a prestigious osition. For Mary to be successful, she knew she would have to further her education and learn more about psychology. Her ambition led her to enroll in two psychology seminars, one being at Clark University and the taught by Edmund C. Sanford and was taught by William James at Harvard University. Initially she was denied entry into Harvard because she was a woman. However, she had the president of Wellesley and her father both write letters on her behalf and was accepted. In 1891, her determination began paying dividends as she was able to set up a psychological laboratory at Wellesley and added scientific psychology to the program of study. From 1892 to 1895, she attended Harvard University. This is where she received some of the greatest resistance to everything she was trying to accomplish. Men and society during this time did not believe that women were fit for any job unless it was something that assisted a man i. e. doctor-nurse, boss-secretary, and homemaker. While Mary was allowed to attend Harvard, it was not without conditions. She could take classes and test, but in the University’s eyes she would be considered as guest. Undeterred and ready for the challenge, Mary enrolled in William James seminar on psychology; all the other students who happened to be men dropped the course in protest. What they believed is that if they did this the professor would boot her from the program because he would not want to lose his other students. Instead Professor James taught her individually and became her mentor. She also studied in the psychological laboratory at Harvard. She did all this while remaining a professor at Wellesley College herself. Mary completed all the required work and passed all her exams to earn a Ph. D. However, she was not awarded one due to the fact the she was a woman and women were not allowed to officially register at Harvard back then. She was later offered a Ph. D. , by Radcliffe College which was the female equivalent of Harvard, but she turned it down, believing that she done all of her work at Harvard, so it should be Harvard that awards her Ph. D. In 1898 is when Mary became a full time professor at Wellesley College focusing on philosophy and psychology publishing a slew of articles. When ten leading psychologists in the field of psychology were asked to rate their contemporaries by the measure of their work, Mary Calkins was listed 12 out of 50. Mary Calkins has given much to the field of psychology. For example there were only twelve colleges that had psychological laboratories in the entire United States and she created one. In her laboratory she had fifty four students dissect sheep brains and carry out studies on sensation, space perception, memory and reaction time. All of which are things that are used today by other scientists and different medical communities. For example, we are always hearing that drunk driving skews your space perception, sensation, memory and reaction time. One has to think this is not a coincidence that her work contributed to their findings. It was the first at a woman’s college and she did this with a mere $200. From 1891-1892 at the behest of G. Stanley Hall who has the editor of the American Journal of Psychology, her articles were normally studies and experiment by her and her studies that included everything from children’s emotions, moral consciousness, drawings, psychological anesthetics, and dreams. From her research in dreams she discovered there was a close relationship between her patient’s dreams and what happens in real life. Her work would not be appreciated during its early stages by most scholars as they were on board with Freudian thought process on dreams. Later this same community would dismiss Freud’s method and make Calkins research integral to dream researching. Through all of her research while pursuing her doctorate one of her most significant things she have to psychology was the Paired Technique. This technique is explained is putting to paired numbers in different colors on cards and flashing them to see what the subject could remember. What she found was bright colors were retained better as well as a new memorization method. It later became a standard means for human learning and remnants of it are still used today by psychologists. Of all of Mary Calkins contributions to psychology, she was most interested in self-psychology and ignited the brainstorm over this that caused many to take up research on the subject. She even published an autobiography in 1930, where her goal was to get psychologists to become self-psychologists. In 1900, she even wrote and published a paper expressing her belief that psychology is a science of the self. This was immediately followed by criticism from other academics. Mary Calkins was never afraid of a challenge and answered those criticisms in work that followed and in her presidential address at the American Psychological Association meeting in 1905. For all that she tried to do in self psychology, unfortunately Dr. Kohut, Dr. Honess, and Dr. Yardley failed to credit to give her any credit in this arena. During her career Mary was really busy evidenced by her writing 67 articles on psychology and 37 in philosophy. She also wrote and had 4 books on psychology published. Mary Calkins exemplary work preceded her and resulted in her being the first woman named president of the American Psychological Association and the American Philosophical Association. What Mary Calkins was able to accomplish in her day and age was simply amazing. She had to overcome numerous obstacles that would have made any other person give up and pursue a different profession. She worked and went to school, dealt with sexism and static thinking, in terms of a womens’ place in society. I say to Mary Calkins you are a winner and we remember you. Not only for your contributions that you have to the respective field of psychology, but the barriers that you broke down so that other women were allowed to be more easily accepted and respected. From my research on Mary Calkins I learned that a group of Harvard alumni petitioned for her to be awarded her doctorate in 1930, but they were denied. I think that it would be fitting if this cause was taken up once again today. For everything Mary Calkins has meant to the field of psychology it is the least we could do to honor all of the blood, sweat, and tears that she put into her work.

Immigrants Experience from 1847 essays

Immigrants Experience from 1847 essays The Immigrants Experience In America 1. During the peak period of the pre-Civil War immigration, from 1847 through 1857, 3.3 million immigrants entered the United States; 1.3 million were from Ireland and 1.1 million came from the German States. Most immigrants came essentially because of poor economic conditions in Europe and prospects for a better life in the US. In the 19th century poverty was the main spur to movement. The industrial and agricultural revolutions brought such profound changes in Europe that large numbers of people were forced by circumstances beyond their control to leave their hometowns and move to where they could find jobs. Variety of other impelling reasons like religious intolerance, demeaning social gradations, political upheavals led to mass immigration. Industrial revolution: People, who worked and had different levels of authority, now were on the same level. Machines were doing the jobs for everyone. Agricultural revolution: Farmers who did everything with there own hands now had machines working instead of them. Demeaning social gradations: Oldest son inherited everything, the rest of the family members had to support themselves with other means. Political upheavals: Revolution of 1848- Intellectuals wanted Europe to have more democratic government. They tried and failed. a) The Irish were first of the Europeans to leave to the United States. The Irish Poor Law of 1838, the enclosure movement on the land, and finally the great famine at the end of the 1840s together with potato blight brought the increase to emigration. As the conditions improved in Ireland in the middle of the 1850s, emigration subsided, but another potato rot in 1863 and still another famine in the 1880s increased the Irish emigration statistics. Almost 4 million Irish came to America in the 19th century. b) Along with the Irish came Germans. They were the largest ethnic group arriving in three years between 1854...